1. empirical observation - the direct observation of nature.

2. rationalism - the rationalist believes that mental operations or principles must be used before knowledge can be attained.

3. empiricism - the empiricist maintains that the source of all knowledge is sensory observation.

4. determinism - it assumes that everything that occurs is a function of a finite number of causes and that, if the causes were
known, an event could be predicted with complete accuracy.

5. scientific law - it is based on a consistently observed relationship between two or more classes of empirical events.

6. principle of falsifiability - a scientific theory must be refutable; it must make risky predictions.

7. theory - a set of abstract concepts made about a group of facts or events to explain them.

8. paradigm - a super-theory or grand-model.

9. scientific statement - a statement about the world based on observations arising from a currently held paradigm.

10. operational definition - a definition that specifies those behaviors that are included in the construct.

11. scientific constructs - an imaginary or hypothetical construct used to explain what happens in science.

12. clinical approach - using a case history which is a carefully drawn up biography of the individual.

13. correlational approach - variables are carefully observed to see the extent to which they occur together. There is NO
cause and effect relationship. It only allows prediction.

14. experimental approach - a cause and effect relationship can be inferred on two factors. It allows prediction and control.
For this reason, causal laws are more powerful than correlational laws.

15. psychometric test - it measures personality characteristics through carefully designed questionnaires developed with
theoretical and statistical techniques.

16. reliability - the quality of consistently yielding the same results.

17. validity - the quality of measuring what the construct is supposed to be measuring.

18. philosophical assumptions - an underlying view of the world that influences a person's thinking.

1. The scientific method is an elaborate process for checking out ideas about the world. It emphasizes verification. Hence,
its findings are public. The experimental method is the best way to test hypotheses (e.g., ideas of how something should
work). The experimenter manipulates one variable (IV) while measuring its effects on another variable (DV). Thus,
cause-effect statements are derived through the experimental method. Clinical studies involve gathering in-depth information on few individuals (e.g., case studies). These studies are useful to describe behavior. Correlational studies predict people's behaviors. Caution: a correlation means that two variables are associated with each other or covary together - it does not mean causation.

2. Many studies use psychological tests (paper and pencil tests) that need to be both reliable and valid. Reliability refers to
the degree to which instruments are stable and repeatable. Validity refers to the extent to which something measures what it
is intended to measure.

3. A theory organizes information and makes predictions. Theories operate within a paradigm or a model of how science is
to be conducted. A construct is an abstraction (it only exists in our minds). When a construct is stated in terms of operational (empirical) definitions, it is measurable, and, to the extent that constructs are measurable, a theory is testable. Theory acceptance is always tentative (we can never know everything at once); thus, what we "see" and measure is always
theory-bound (it must be processed through our minds) and fallible. Our goal is to test our assumptions about the world so
that we can have better, or riskier, theories. Thus, we constantly try to falsify old assumptions (theories).

4. Empirical evidence can be proven mathematically through the use of predefined laws. Evidence that is not empirical
cannot be proven on paper, but it is still important. Nonempirical evidence makes us think creatively. There are elements of
this world that we cannot explain on paper yet, but that does not mean those things do not occur or exist. They simply make
us all think about the world in which we live.

1. Take testimonials with a grain of salt.

2. Be skeptical of studies that purport to show that a variable does not have an effect (the study might be faulty, or the IV is
just too weak to detect any effect).

3. Avoid confusing mere correlation with causation.

4. Familiarize yourself with the measures well so that you can tell whether the IV and DV overlap with each other (they
should not overlap; if they do, we are just measuring the same thing, or giving different names to the same thing).

5. Be careful about generalizing from one study to another if the variables are merely named and categorized without being
quantified or at least standardized.

6. Require good evidence for the reliability of the measures.

7. Look over measures to be sure they are validly representative of what the authors wanted to study.

8. Be sure there are enough participants to justify the expectation that the results will be generalizable.

9. If some people refused to participate, notice whether there were enough refusals to bias the results if those who refused
were different from those who agreed.

10. Take into account how many statistical comparisons have been made before deciding if there are enough subjects (if the
ratio of subjects to number of analysis is inappropriate, the researchers may have found differences due to chance).

11. If evidence does not meet the above standards, view it with skepticism even if a person with fine credentials proposes it.
This applies even if the evidence is presented in elegant scientific jargon.

12. If a claim is based on many studies that contain these kinds of flaws, do not be deceived by the number of studies.
Multiplying faulty evidence may just be compounding errors.

13. Sometimes people will claim that scientific principles do not apply to their claims because they are not scientists. You
should ask them, and yourself, how their claims are kept safe from the errors to which human judgement has always been
subject.

1. catharsis - an emotional release that occurs when an idea is brought to consciousness and is allowed expression.

2. wishes - desires that may be rendered unconscious if they go against a person's ego ideal.

3. free association - in psychoanalysis, a technique in which a person verbalizes whatever comes to mind. The pressure
technique is when the psychologist physically touches the patient to become a catalyst to emotional release in the free
association process.

4. slips - bungled acts such as a slip of the tongue, slip of the pen or a memory lapse.

5. manifest dream - the dream as it is remembered the next morning.

6. latent dream - the real meaning or motive that underlies the dream that we remember.

7. libido - an emotional and psychic energy derived from the biological drive of sexuality.

8. drive - psychological representation of an inner bodily source of excitement characterized by its source, impetus, aim, and
object.

9. life impulses - drives or forces that maintain life processes and assures propagation of the species.

10. death impulses - drives or forces that are the source of aggressiveness.

11. psychosexual stages - series of developmental stages through which all people pass as they move from infancy to
adulthood.

12. oral stage - psychosexual stage, major source of pleasure and potential conflicts come from the mouth. Occurs
approximately during the first year of life. The major conflict is weaning.

13. anal stage - psychosexual stage, major center for pleasure and conflict is the anus. Occurs approximately during the
second year of life. The major conflict is toilet training.

14. phallic stage - psychosexual stage, pleasurable and conflicting feelings are associated with the genital organs.

15. Oedipus complex - unconscious psychological conflict in which the child loves the parent of the opposite sex. The male
child loves his mother and wants to eliminate his father. The conflict is resolved through the defense mechanism,
identification, in which the child shares with the father in the love for the mother.

16. castration anxiety - the male child's fear of losing his penis.

17. Electra complex - a term that some critics have used to explain the male counterpart of the Oedipus complex.

18. penis envy - concept that women view themselves as castrated males and envy the penis.

19. latency period - psychosexual stage of development in which the sexual drive was thought to go underground. A massive repression of sexuality so that industrial tasks are learned.

20. genital stage - final psychosexual stage, in which an individual reaches sexual maturity [to love and work]. The conflict
is commitment versus non-commitment.

21. fixation - a concept in which there is an arrest of growth, and excessive needs characteristic of an earlier stage are
created by overindulgence or undue frustration. Libidinal energy remains devoted to an earlier stage of life.

22. id - oldest and original function of personality which includes genetic inheritance, reflex capacities, instincts and drives.
The id is irrational; it seeks pleasure no matter what the consequences.

23. pleasure principle- the seeking of tension reduction that governs the id.

24. primary process - psychological activity of the id characterized by immediate wish fulfillment and the disregard for
realistic concerns.

25. wish fulfillment - a primary process activity that seeks to reduce tension by forming an image of the object which would
satisfy needs.

26. ego - function of the personality that follows the reality principle and that operates according to secondary processes
(reality testing). Secondary processes are used to formulate a plan of action. Reality testing is when different methods are
used to accomplish the same goal and the best method is selected for use in the future.

27. reality principle - the way in which the ego satisfies the impulse of the id in an appropriate manner in the external world.

28. secondary process - higher intellectual functions that enable the ego to establish suitable courses of action and test them
for their effectiveness.

29. superego - a function of the personality that represents interjected and internalized values, ideals, and moral standards.
The superego defines the personal philosophy by dictating what is right and wrong morally for the individual. The superego strives for perfection; thus, it is rigid and unrealistic.

30. conscience - a subsystem of the superego that refers to the capacity for self-evaluation, criticism, and reproach.

30a. consciousness - the thoughts, feelings, and wishes that a person is aware of at any given moment.

31. ego ideal - a subsystem of the superego consisting of an idealistic internal measure or standard of what one should be.

32. defense mechanisms - a procedure that wards off anxiety and prevents its conscious perception.

33. repression - the key defense mechanism which entails blocking a wish or desire from expression, so that it cannot be
experienced consciously or directly expressed in behavior.

34. projection - defense mechanism that refers to the unconscious attribution of an impulse attitude or behavior to someone
else or some element in the environment.

35. reaction formation - defense mechanism in which an impulse is expressed by its opposite.

36. regression - a defense mechanism that entails reverting to earlier forms of behavior.

37. rationalization - a defense mechanism that entails offering reasonable-sounding explanations for unreasonable,
unacceptable behaviors.

38. identification - a defense mechanism in which a person reduces anxiety by modeling his or her behavior after that of
someone else, and the process whereby the child resolves the Oedipus complex by incorporating the parents, ideals/mores
into the self.

39. displacement - a defense mechanism used to satisfy an impulse with a substitute object, either because such an outlet is
unavailable or because it is forbidden.

40. sublimation - a defense mechanism that refers to re-channeling a wish, the direct expression of which is socially
unacceptable, into a socially desirable outlet.

41. transference - in psychoanalysis, the process in which the patient projects onto the analyst emotional attitudes felt as a
child.

42. countertransference - in psychoanalysis, the process in which the analyst has an emotional reaction to the patient.

1. Freud shocked the world by demonstrating the importance of unconscious motivation. He proposed two models for the
division of the mind: the topographical and the structural. Freud came into the forefront of psychology in a time when
physical causes were sought for explaining mental illness, and sexuality was taboo. His theories searched for mental causes
and made sexuality the central motivation for all actions. This shocked the Victorian society in which he lived, but at the
same time it intrigued them in a way sexuality still captivates the people of today.

2. The id is the oldest system of the personality. It provides the psychic energy for all three systems. It knows only the
subjective inner world, and it operates by the pleasure -principle (instant gratification) and the primary process (mental
images).

3. The ego represents rational thinking. It tries to conform (match) the id's mental pictures to objective reality. The ego
operates by the reality -principle (things in the real world) and the secondary -process (plans of action or reality testing).

4. The superego represents moral standards. Its 'conscience punishes wrong behaviors, and its ego ideal rewards right
behaviors.

5. The life instincts (Eros), such as hunger and sex, seek to preserve the individual and the species; the death instincts
(Thanatos) embody the organism's wish to die. The aggressive drive is self-destruction turned against other people.

6. The id cathects., or invests psychic energy in, any object that seems to gratify its needs. The ego invests energy -in real
need-satisfying objects and in dealing with the id and superego. It also uses excess energy to develop other psychological
processes (e.g., abstract thinking). The superego invests energy in building and maintaining moral standards. Both the ego
and the superego use psychic energy to restrain unacceptable libidinal demands. When energy is used this way, it is then called anti-cathexis.

7. Realistic anxiety is the fear of a real danger in the external world. Neurotic anxiety results when the id's impulses threaten
to break through and cause the person to do something that may bring punishment from an imaginary external source. Moral anxiety is the fear of self punishment, or of one's own conscience.

8. The ego attempts to deal with excessive anxiety by means of defense mechanisms - repression, projection, reaction
formation, etc. - that operate unconsciously and that deny or distort reality.

9. The personality develops through five stages: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital. The self-oriented dynamics of the
first three stages are crucial to character formation. They lead, after a fourth period of relative calm, to the appearance, in
the fifth stage, of the mature, socialized adult.

10. Freud's theory is based on the words and actions of the patients he saw in treatment. His two main techniques for
gathering and interpreting the data were free association and the analysis of dreams.

11. Freud's published case histories illustrate some of his important concepts. His methods of research are descriptive in
nature. Freud was a determinist with a pessimistic attitude toward life. He sought to prove cause and effect relationships
between events that happened in childhood to the effects on personality in adult life.

12. The most serious criticisms of Freudian theory are those that call it to task for its failure to employ scientific method.
Freud's constructs are not always clearly framed so that they have clear empirical referents. His observations were neither
recorded nor made under controlled conditions. Thus they were subject to the influence of extraneous variables, including
his own biases, and they are not readily subjected to quantification or tests for significance. It has been very difficult, as a
result, to replicate Freud's observations according to his exact design, and his theory has been considered by many to be
more descriptive than predictive.

13. Beginning in the late 1940's, however, psychologists have been making serious efforts to establish the validity of
psychoanalysis through scientific procedures. Several recent surveys of such research have found considerable support for a number of Freud's conceptions. And recently, some psychoanalysts have begun to use laboratory techniques to investigate
aspects of Freudian theory.

1. individual psychology - school of psychology developed by Adler.

2. intrapsychic - within a psyche or individual self.

3. interpsychic - between psyches or persons.

4. social interest - an urge in human nature to adapt one's self to the conditions of one's environment and society.

5. finalism - a principle that reflects the concept of goal orientation.

6. fictional finalism - basic concept of philosophical assumption that cannot be tested against reality.

7. usefulness - in scientific theorizing, the ability of a hypothesis to generate predictions about experiences we might
observe. In Adler's theory, the ability of a goal to foster productive living and enhance one's life.

8. goal of superiority - the ultimate fictional finalism, entailing the desire to be competent and effective in whatever one
strives to do and to actualize one's potential.

9. inferiority feelings - feelings of being inadequate that arise out of childhood experiences.

10. masculine protest - the compensation for one's perceived inferiorities.

11. style of life - the specific ways in which an individual seeks to obtain the goal of superiority.

12. family constellation - one's position within the family in terms of birth order among siblings, and the presence or absence of parents or other care-givers.

13. family atmosphere - the quality of emotional relationships among members of the family.

14. creative self - the aspect of the person that interprets and makes meaningful the experience of the organism and
establishes the lifestyle.

15. compensation - making up for or overcoming a weakness.

16. overcompensation - an exceptional effort to make up for a weakness.

17. inferiority complex - neurotic pattern in which an individual feels highly inadequate.

18. superiority complex - a neurotic pattern in which the individual exaggerates his or her importance.

19. mistaken style of life - a style of like that belies one's actual capabilities and strengths.

20. safe-guarding tendencies - compensatory mechanisms that ward off feelings of insecurity.

1. To guide their behavior, people create fictional final goals that represent not reality but what is possible.

2. The person is a socially oriented, self-conscious being who seeks actively to develop oneself.

3. The primary human motive is the need to overcome inferiority and achieve superiority. This is the upward drive - to be
superior, to strive for perfection.

4. The human being's potential for social interest (seeking companionship and harmony) must be developed by the parent or the educational system.

S. The style of life, the person's unique way of striving for superiority, is fairly set by the age of 4 or 5, although it can be
changed by purposeful action.

6. The creative power of the self is what enables the person to use inherited abilities and the forces of the environment to
construct his or her particular attitude toward life and relations with others.

7. Conditions such as organic infirmity, pampering, or neglect may produce an inferiority or superiority complex and a
maladaptive life-style. However, individuals may (overcompensate for a weakness.

8. The ordinal position, or birth order, of each child in a family influences the child's personality characteristics.

9. People's earliest memories often reveal the genesis of their style of life.

10. For Adler, dreams provide a way of dealing with daily problems and of planning for the future.

11. The goal of all human beings is to live, love, and work harmoniously with others.

12. It is healthy to shift your fictional final goals. It is neurotic to allow your fictional final goals to become "reality."

13. The masculine protest is the act of compensating for inferiority. It applies to both men and women. It is normal to have
feelings of inferiority as long as those feelings are not overwhelming and you as an individual work toward overcoming
them.

1. analytical psychology - school of psychology founded by Jung.

2. psyche - from the Greek term meaning "breath" or "principle of life" translated to "soul" or "self"; the total personality
encompassing all psychological processes: thoughts, feelings, sensations.

3. libido - an undifferentiated life and psychic energy.

4. ego - one's conscious perception of self.

5. attitude - a basic orientation to the world.

6. functions - ways of perceiving the environment  .

7. personal unconscious - experience of an individual's life that have been repressed or temporarily forgotten.

8. complex - an organized group of thoughts, feelings and memories about a particular concept.

9. constellation power - the power of a complex to admit new ideas into itself.

10. collective unconscious - a shared, transpersonal unconscious consisting of potential ways of being human.

11. archetype - a universal thought form or predisposition to perceive the world in certain ways. 12. persona - an archetype
referring to one's social role and the understanding of it.

13. shadow - an archetype that encompasses one's animalistic and unsocial side.

14. anima - an archetype representing the feminine side of the male personality.

15. animus - an archetype representing the masculine side of the female personality.

16. mandala - a concentrically arranged figure often found as a symbol in the East that denotes wholeness and unity. A
symbol for the emerging self.

17. self-realization - a drive within the self to realize, fulfill and enhance one's maximum human potentialities.

18. individuation - in self-realization, a process whereby the systems of the individual psyche achieve their fullest degree of
differentiation, expression and development.

19. transcendence - a process of integrating the diverse systems of the self toward the goal of wholeness and identification
with all humanity.

20. compensatory function - an effort to complement one's conscious side and speak for the unconscious.

21. amplification - an analytical method whereby one focuses repeatedly on an element and gives multiple associations to it.

1. The personality, or psyche, is a unity that includes all thought, feeling, and behavior, whether conscious or unconscious.

2. The ego, the organization of the conscious mind, screens experiences for admission into consciousness. Hence, the ego is often referred as the "gate keeper" to consciousness.

3. Forgotten, suppressed, or rejected experiences are stored in the -personal unconscious.

4. A complex is a group of ideas that cluster together in the personal unconscious.

5. The collective unconscious is composed of primordial images, or archetypes, inherited from our racial, and even animal,
past. Its contents can be helpful but, if ignored, can interfere with effective functioning.

6. Four archetypes are of great importance in shaping the personality: The persona, the animus/anima, the shadow, and the
self. The self gradually becomes the center of the personality and guides the person toward self-realization.

7. Symbols, which are the outward manifestations of archetypes, often represent the wisdom of the collective unconscious.

8. The introverted attitude reflects a focus on an inner, private world. The extroverted attitude reflects a focus on the external
world of things, events, and people. Thinking and feeling are opposing, rational functions; sensing and intuiting are opposing, nonrational functions.

9. The two attitudes and the four functions form eight psychological types, which have been studied by a number of
researchers since Jung.

10. Psychic energy, or life energy, powers activities such as attending, thinking, willing, and striving.

11. Psychic energy follows the principles of equivalence and entropy: the amount of energy in the personality system stays
the same, and within the system energy remains in balance.

12. Psychic energy pursues its two purposes of preserving life and developing cultural and spiritual activities through
progression and regression. In regression energy moves forward; in regression it retreats to the unconscious.

13. The individuation and the transcendent functions involve making what is unconscious conscious and lead to self
realization.

14. Causality lies both in the past (mechanism) and in the future (purposivism). Synchronicity may explain the occurrence of events that do not follow natural laws.

15. The word association test, which permits us access to important unconscious material, is used in clinical diagnostic
settings as well as in the detection of crime.

16. Dreams, which are clearest expression of the unconscious, compensate for neglected aspects of the psyche and outline
future plans or solutions to problems.

17. Jung rejected the sexuality of Freud's approach to psychology and replaced it with a more spiritual approach. He
believed that people were not solely motivated by sexual energy but by the way their personality type dictated them to be,
e.g., Introvert or Extrovert.

18. Jung's theory is teleological in nature. He believed that the future pulled events as the past pushed them. This view
further separated him from Freudian views as Freud believed that the past controlled the future.

19. Jung emphasizes the racial origins of personality. The foundations of personality are archaic and transpersonal.
cious.  These foundations are found in the collective unconscious.

1. basic anxiety - feelings of insecurity in which the environment as a whole is dreaded because it is seen as unrealistic,
dangerous, unappreciative, and unfair.

2. neurotic needs or trends- exaggerated defense strategies that permit an individual to cope with the world.

3. moving toward - one of the three primary modes of relating to people in which one accepts his or her, own helplessness
and becomes compliant in order to depend on others.

4. moving against - one of the three primary modes of relating to other people, in which one seeks to protect himself or
herself by revenge or controlling others.

5. moving away - one of the three primary modes of relating to people, in which one isolates him or herself and keeps away.

6. basic orientations - fundamental modes of interaction with the world.

7. self-effacing solution - one of three basic orientations toward life which presents an appeal to be loved by others.

8. self expansive solution - one of the three basic orientations toward life which represents a striving for control and
domination.

9. resignation solution - one of the three basic orientations, representing the desire to be free of others and to resign from
life.

10. real self - that which a person actually is.

11. idealized self - that which a person thinks he or she should be.

12. alienation - a state in which the real self and the idealized self are disconnected.

13. womb envy - the concept that men and boys experience jealousy over the woman's ability to bear and nurse children.

14. self-analysis - a systematic effort at self understanding conducted without the aid of a professional.

1. Human personality is the totality of a person's experience and functioning, including physical, psychological, spiritual,
social, cultural, and moral factors.

2. Freud's theory is too mechanistic and biological, and it mistakenly gives priority to sexual motivation.

3. The keystone of female psychology is not -penis envy but the need for power and equality of status and opportunity.

4. Parental mistreatment in early childhood may produce basic anxiety and basic hostility, which lead to vicious circles of
intensifying distress and maladaptive behaviors.

5. Conflict is inevitable in human life, but people with basic anxiety and basic hostility cannot tolerate conflict. They
develop neurotic ways of trying to deal with it. That is, they develop an idealized self-image, they search for glory, they
evolve neurotic "shoulds,", they externalize what is unacceptable, and they acquire neurotic pride and self-hate. All these
lead to alienation from the self.

6. The three basic ways of relating to others are self effacement, expansion, and resignation. Most people prefer one style
over the others, but normal people express all three from time to time. Neurotic people cling rigidly to one style of
interaction in an effort to avoid conflict.

7. Success in dealing with problems may lead to increased self confidence, which leads to more success.

8. For Horney, self analysis can be useful for normal development and growth.

9. Horney's work provided more insight into the psychology of women, but, just like Freud, she did not use rigorous
laboratory experimentation.

1. attachment - the tie between child and parent that serves the protective and survival needs of the child but which is experienced subjectively as an intense emotional commitment to the other (Bowlby).

2. attachment style - differences in the type and quality of the parent-child bond in infancy (Ainsworth).

3. attachment theory - attachment theory relates styles of infant-caregiver relationships to later personality and interpersonal functioning.  It focuses on the qualitative differences in the bond between children and their parents (Bowlby).

4. secure attachment - an appropriate and strong parent-child bond.

5. secure base - any object that serves the protective needs of a child and, when present and available, allows the child's exploration of the surrounding environment without undue distress (Ainsworth).

6. (anxious) ambivalent attachment - a form of insecure attachment characterized by resistance to separation by the child and rejection and aloofness on the return of the parent (Ainsworth).

7. avoidant attachment - a form of insecure attachment characterized by a lack of distress on the departure of a parent and rejection and active avoidance on the parent's return.

8. disorganized attachment -a form of insecure attachment characterized by inconsistent and sometime conflicting behavior in response to separation and return of the parent.

9. strange situation - an 8-min series of events involving an infant's parent and a stranger. Of particular importance are two times when the infant is left alone with the stranger, followed by the parent's return. Assessors carefully examine the infant's bbehavior, paying special attention to its responses to the parent's return.

10. attachment behavioral system - a series of phases in the development of an attachment to a major caregiver and the use of attachment as a secure base for exploration and separation.  The systems is programmed in infants as part of their adaptive, evolutionary heritage.

11. internal working models - an infant's mental representations (images) of itself and primary caregivers.  These images are a product of interactional experiences and provide the basis for the development of expectations about future relationships.

12. secure style - positive self and other representations associated with comfort with intimacy and autonomy.

13. dismissing style - positive self and negative other representations associated with dismissing of intimacy and counterdependency.

14. preoccupied style - negative self-representation and positive other representation associated with a preoccupation with relationships.

15. fearful style - negative self and other representations associated with fear of intimacy and social avoidance.

Psychosocial theories emphasize the idea that personality is intrinsically social and that the important issues concern how people relate to others.  Several psychosocial theories focus on early life. such as the work of Bowlby and Ainsworth.  Secure attachment provides a solid base for exploration.  There are also patterns of insecure attachment which stem from inconsistent treatment, neglect, or rejection.  These patterns appear stable until at least the gage of 6 years.  There is increasing interest in the idea that childhood attachment patterns persist and influence adult personality.  There is now evidence that adult attachment styles influence many aspects of behavior, including how people relate to their romantic partners.  However, these styles are not fixed in stone and individuals can have multiple attachment patterns depending on with whom they are in a relationship (e.g., male vs. female).