1. empiricism - the philosophical view that human knowledge arises slowly in the course of experience through observation
and experiment.

2. reinforcement - the process of increasing the likelihood of a particular response.

3. reinforcer - any event that increases the likelihood of a response.

4. primary reinforcer - a reinforcer that is inherently rewarding; that is, it relates to one's survival.

5. secondary. reinforcer - a reinforcer that was originally neutral but that acquires reward value on the basis of association
with a primary reinforcer.

6. respondent behavior - reflexes or automatic responses elicited by a stimulus.

7. operant behavior - a response that acts on the environment and is emitted without a stimulus necessarily being present.

8. shaping - a process in which an organism's behavior is gradually molded by successive approximations to the desired
behavior.

9. continuous reinforcement - a schedule of reinforcement in which the desired behavior is reinforced every time (100%) it
occurs.

10. interval reinforcement - a schedule of reinforcement in which the organism is reinforced after a certain time period has
elapsed.

11. ratio reinforcement - a schedule of reinforcement in which the organism is reinforced after a number of appropriate
responses has been made.

12. behavior modification - a form of therapy that applies the principle of learning to achieve changes in behavior.

13. token economy - a setting (e.g., psychiatric ward) based on Skinner's principles in which individuals are rewarded for
appropriate behavior with tokens that can be exchanged for various privileges.

1. According to behaviorism, all behavior is lawful (there is order in what we do), and it can be both predicted and
controlled. Control of behavior is important, both as a means to test our hypotheses and because we will destroy ourselves
and our world if we do not change our behaviors.

2. Behaviors vary in intensity as a function not of inner needs of drives but of environmental variables, such as deprivation
of a given reinforcer.

3. Respondents are behaviors elicited by specific stimuli. operant are behaviors emitted by the organism without specific
stimulation.

4. In classical conditioning, a behavior elicited by a specific stimulus comes to be elicited by another, often totally different,
stimulus. In operant conditioning, a behavior that an organism emits spontaneously is either encouraged to recur or
eliminated by means of positive or negative reinforcers. By operant conditioning, we can encourage new, spontaneous
responses to recur, thus building novel and complex sequences of behavior.

5. Primary reinforcers, like food and water, are reinforcing without any earlier training. Secondary reinforcers, by
association with primary reinforcers, come to have a reinforcing effect.

6. By stimulus generalization, the organism learns to make a particular response in situations that are very similar to the
situation in which the response was learned. By stimulus discrimination, the organism learns to make a particular response
in situations that are different from the one in which the response was learned. Extinction is the weakening of an operant
response by removing the reinforcer that had been following the response.

7. Punishment may eliminate an undesirable behavior, but by removing the reinforcing qualities of such undesirable
behavior and by substituting a desirable behavior (by means of positive reinforcement) in its place is more effective.

8. By shaping we can bring an organism to emit behaviors it would never have emitted, left to its own devices: Beginning
with a spontaneous behavior and differentially reinforcing (reinforcing some responses but not others) and then
successively reinforcing those behaviors that are closer and closer to the desired behavior until eventually the desired
behavior appears.

9. The most common schedules of reinforcement are continuous, fixed interval, variable interval, fixed ratio, and variable
ratio. Continuous reinforcement is least resistant to extinction; variable reinforcement schedules (variable ratio in particular)
are most resistant to extinction.

10. A behavior may be reinforced inadvertently or accidentally, as when a parent pays attention to a child only when it
misbehaves, or when a pigeon develops superstitious behavior.

11. Abnormal behavior can be treated by operant and respondent conditioning procedures. An example is flooding, which
involves encouraging a person with say, a phobia, to get into and stay in a situation that arouses fear until the fear subsides.

12. Behavior modification techniques have been used with considerable success with psychiatric patients, with the
developmentally disabled, and with autistic children. In a token economy, good behavior earns people tokens, which they
can then exchange for desired goods or activities.

13. Skinner's approach has been applied to a wide variety of practical problems: in education, industry, the helping
professions, and animal training. The lawfulness of his findings is unparalleled in psychology, and his schedules of
reinforcement are important to the learning theorists and personality investigators. But because Skinner refuses to infer any
unobservable mechanisms or processes, he has difficulty in extrapolating to completely novel situations. Holistic
psychologists feel that Skinner's approach ignores the complexity of human behavior, and other critics point out that the
simple situations Skinner studies never occur outside the laboratory. Other critics object to behavioral laws that do not
explicitly take species differences into account.

1. reciprocal determinism - in Bandura's theory, the regulation of behavior by an interplay of behavioral, cognitive, and
environmental factors.

2. self-system - in Bandura's theory, cognitive structures that underlie the perception, evaluation, and regulation of
behavior.

3. observational learning - in Bandura's theory, learning that occurs through observation without any direct reinforcement.

4. self-efficacy - in Bandura's theory, a person's perception of his or her effectiveness.

Mischel:

1. behavioral specificity - means that the individuals behavior is determined by the specific situation.

1. Social learning theory holds that human behavior is largely acquired and that learning principles are sufficient to account for the development and maintenance of human behavior.

2. Human beings think and regulate their own behavior; they are not simply pawns of the environment.

3. A theory of personality must take account of the social contexts in which behavior is acquired and maintained.

4. Reciprocal determinism is the continuous reciprocal interaction among the cognitive person, the person's behavior, and
the external environment.

5. Motivation has two sources: the anticipation of future outcomes and the expectation of success based on experiences in setting and reaching successive subgoals. Performance tends to improve when subjects have an opportunity to set such subgoals and to evaluate their performance.

6. The self system refers to cognitive structures and subfunctions involved in perception, evaluation, and the regulation of behavior. The self system regulates behavior through self-observation, judgmental processes, and self-response.

7. Self-efficacy is the perception of how well one can function in a given situation. Strong efficacy expectations and
realistic outcome expectations lead to persistence and hard work.

8. Human behavior is guided largely and is kept consistent by anticipation of self-approval or self-criticism, both of which evolve out of personal standards of behavior that are based on standards of socializing agents, like parents and peers.

9. Changing personal efficacy expectations has been found to improve coping and adaptive behaviors in persons with a
variety of behavioral problems.

10. Observation and vicarious reinforcement or no reinforcement at all may lead to the acquisition of learning. It is the
expectation of reinforcement that leads to the performance of learning.

11. The expectation of reinforcement can develop from observing the consequences either of others, behaviors or of our
own behaviors.

12. Novel response can be learned vicariously and without either actual or vicarious reinforcement.

13. Human beings' cognitive skills enable them not only to reproduce observed behaviors but to create innovative behaviors out of combined observations.

14. Modeled behaviors may strengthen responses already in an observer's repertoire. They may also strengthen or weaken an observer's inhibitions against performing socially unacceptable behavior, depending on whether the model is rewarded or punished.

15. Symbolic modeling, as in television and movies, can have strong effects on observers, behaviors.

16. The observer's attention, an important factor in learning, is determined by the consequences of a models behavior for
the model and the personal characteristics of both model and observer. Personal characteristics of model and observer
often interact to determine whether a model will be imitated.

17. An emotional response can be classically conditioned by vicarious means.

18. Undesirable behaviors can be extinguished both directly and vicariously.

19. The basic problem in anxiety of fear reaction is not emotional distress but the belief that one cannot cope effectively
with a particular situation.

20. Participant modeling, the most effective technique for extinguishing undesirable behavior, enables people to become
progressively more and more dependent on their own effort, increasing their sense of self-efficacy.

21. Global dispositions and trait approaches to personality neglect the individual's uniqueness.

22. Measures of commonly accepted traits, like aggression or dependency, have not been found to predict behavior
accurately.

23. The consistency paradox refers to the fact that although intuition supports a belief in broad dispositions that lead to
cross-situational consistency, research fails to substantiate this notion.

24. Consistency may lie in smaller, more discrete sets of behavior that are temporarily stable but not necessarily stable
across many or all possibly relevant situations.

25. Delay of gratification refers to the ability to forego immediate gain for future reward. Studies have shown that children learn to postpone rewards by avoiding thinking about the desired reward and by shifting their attention to other things.

26. Critics complain that learning theorists study only nonhuman animals and use experimental laboratory settings that are not capable of extrapolation to real life. But although social learning theory has remained faithful to its experimental
origins, social learning theorists usually study human beings, and they attempt to introduce conditions analogous to
real-life social environments into their experimentation. Social leaning theorists are willing to modify their theories as new data are acquired, and they have developed some important research models and assessment instruments. Their
increasingly cognitive orientation makes their theories attractive to the personality researcher.